The Making of Nationalism in Europe - Complete Class 10 CBSE Notes.

INTRODUCTION:

Section 2 "The Making of Nationalism in Europe" is a crucial part of NCERT Class 10 History Chapter 1. This section explains the social, political, and economic conditions in Europe before nation-states were formed. It shows us who supported nationalism, what liberal ideas meant, and how conservative rulers tried to stop nationalist movements.

Before the 19th century, Europe looked very different from today. There were no countries like Germany, Italy, or Poland as we know them now. Instead, large empires ruled over people who spoke different languages and followed different customs. This section helps us understand how Europe slowly changed from these multi-national empires to modern nation-states.

In this blog post, we will cover all topics from Section 2 in very simple English, perfect for Class 10 CBSE students. We will learn about Europe's social structure, the rise of the middle class, liberal nationalism, economic unity through Zollverein, conservatism after Napoleon's defeat, and revolutionary movements led by people like Giuseppe Mazzini.

 

 

Table of Contents

• Introduction
• Europe Before Nation States
• The Aristocracy and the New Middle Class
• What Did Liberal Nationalism Stand For?
• Economic Unity Through Zollverein
• A New Conservatism After 1815
• The Revolutionaries
• Social Classes and Their Role in Nationalism
• Summary Points
• FAQs

 

 

Europe Before Nation-States

 

What Did Europe Look Like in the 18th Century?

In the mid-18th century, Europe did not have clearly defined nation-states. Most of Europe was divided into kingdoms, duchies, principalities, and empires ruled by powerful royal families.

​Examples of Divided Regions:

Germany:

 Germany was not one country but divided into 39 separate states

 These included kingdoms, duchies (ruled by dukes), and principalities (ruled by princes)

 Each state had its own ruler, laws, and currency

Italy:

 Italy was split into seven different states

 No single ruler controlled all of Italy

Switzerland:

 Switzerland was divided into small regions called cantons

 Each canton was independent

Eastern and Central Europe:

 These regions were ruled by autocratic monarchies (kings with absolute power)

 The Habsburg Empire, Ottoman Empire, and Russian Empire controlled vast territories

The Habsburg Empire - A Multi-National Empire

The Habsburg Empire is a perfect example of how Europe was organized before nationalism. This empire was ruled by the Habsburg dynasty from Austria.

​Size and Diversity of the Habsburg Empire:
The Habsburg Empire included territories that today form:

 Austria

 Hungary

 Parts of Poland

 Parts of Czech Republic (Bohemia)

 Parts of Romania (Transylvania)

 Parts of Italy (Lombardy and Venetia)

 Parts of Croatia, Slovenia, and Slovakia

Different Peoples in the Habsburg Empire:
The empire ruled over many different ethnic groups:

​ Germans lived in the Alpine regions (Austria)

 Italians lived in Lombardy and Venetia

 Magyars (Hungarians) lived in Hungary

 Poles lived in Galicia in the north

 Czechs lived in Bohemia (modern Czech Republic)

 Slovaks lived in northern regions

 Slovenes lived in Carniola

 Croats lived in the south

 Romanians lived in Transylvania in the east

What United Them?
All these different groups spoke different languages and had different cultures. The only thing that held them together was their common allegiance to the Habsburg Emperor. This shows how difficult it was to create a sense of national unity in such diverse empires.

Read also: The French Revolution & the Idea of the Nation

---

The Aristocracy and the New Middle Class

 

 

Understanding Europe's Social Structure

In 18th and early 19th century Europe, society was divided into clear social classes. Let's understand each class:

​1. The Aristocracy - The Dominant Class

Who were the Aristocracy?
The aristocracy was the class of nobles and royal families. They were the most powerful people in Europe socially and politically.

​Characteristics of the Aristocracy:

 They were a numerically small group (very few in number)

 They owned vast estates and agricultural lands

 They were the dominant class in Europe politically and socially

 They spoke French for diplomacy and in high society

 Their families were connected by ties of marriage across Europe

 They lived luxurious lives in palaces and mansions

How Did They Control Land?
The aristocracy's estates were cultivated by serfs (bonded laborers). Serfs were peasants who were bound to the land and had to work for their lords. They could not leave without permission.

​

2. The Peasantry - The Majority

Who were the Peasantry?
The peasants formed the majority of the population in Europe.

​

Life of Peasants:

 They worked on lands owned by aristocrats

 Most were serfs or bonded laborers

 They had very few rights

 Their lives were difficult with hard work and poverty

3. The Middle Class - The New Social Group

How Did the Middle Class Emerge?
In Western Europe and parts of Central Europe, something new was happening in the 18th century. Industrialization began, which means factories were built and production increased.

​Impact of Industrialization:

 Growth of industrial production and trade

 Growth of towns and cities

 Emergence of commercial classes whose work was based on production for the market

Note: Industrialization began in England in the second half of the 18th century. Later it spread to France and parts of German states.

​Who Were the Middle Class?
The middle class was a new social group that emerged with the growth of towns and commercial activities. This class included:

​ Industrialists (factory owners)

 Businessmen and merchants

 Professionals like doctors, lawyers, and engineers

 Teachers and educated people

Why Was the Middle Class Important?
The middle class was an educated class where ideas of national unity gained popularity. They became the main supporters of liberal nationalism and demanded changes in how Europe was governed.

---

What Did Liberal Nationalism Stand For?

 

Meaning of Liberalism

The term "liberalism" comes from the Latin root "liber" which means free. In the early 19th century, liberalism was a set of political ideas that became popular among the educated middle classes.

​Political Ideas of Liberalism

For the middle classes in Europe, liberalism meant the following things:

1. Freedom for the Individual

 Every person should have basic rights and freedoms

 No one should be arrested without reason

 People should be free to express their opinions

2. Equality Before the Law

 All citizens should be treated equally by the law

 Rich and poor should have equal rights in courts

3. Government by Consent

 The government should be formed with the consent (agreement) of the people

 Government should not be based on the will of one king alone

4. End of Autocracy

 Kings should not have absolute power

 One person should not control everything

5. End of Clerical Privileges

 The Church should not have special political powers

 Religion should be separate from government

6. A Constitution

 There should be a written constitution

 The constitution should define the powers of the government

7. Representative Government Through Parliament

 People should elect representatives

 Parliament should make laws, not just the king

Economic Ideas of Liberalism

In the field of economics, liberalism stood for:

1. Freedom of Markets

 Business and trade should be free

 Governments should not control trade too much

2. Abolition of State-Imposed Restrictions

 State should not put too many restrictions on movement of goods

 Trade barriers should be removed

3. Removal of Guild Restrictions

 Guilds were organizations that controlled who could do which work

 Liberals wanted these restrictions removed so anyone could work anywhere

Important Point About Liberal Voting Rights

However, we must remember one important thing: 19th-century liberals did NOT believe in universal adult franchise.

​What does this mean?

 They did NOT want voting rights for all adults

 They believed only property-owning men should have the right to vote

 Women were completely excluded from voting rights

 Poor men without property were also denied voting rights

This shows that liberalism at that time had limitations and was not fully democratic by today's standards.

---

Economic Unity Through Zollverein -
The German Example

 

The Problem of Economic Fragmentation in Germany

Before unification, Germany consisted of 39 different states. Each state had its own system, which created huge problems for trade and business.

​Problems Faced by Merchants:

Example from NCERT:
According to a historian, in the 1830s, a merchant traveling from Hamburg to Nuremberg (two German cities) had to pass through 11 customs barriers. At each barrier, he had to:

​ Stop and wait

 Pay customs duties (taxes on goods)

 Get documents checked

This made trade very slow, expensive, and difficult.

Other Problems:

 Different currencies: There were over 30 different currencies in German states

 Different weights and measures: Each state had its own system

 Internal trade barriers: Goods faced taxes when moving from one German state to another

Solution: The Zollverein (Customs Union)

To solve these problems, a customs union called Zollverein was formed in 1834.

​What is a Customs Union?
A customs union is an agreement between states to:

 Remove trade barriers between themselves

 Use common customs rules

 Create a unified economic zone

Who Started Zollverein?
The Zollverein was formed at the initiative of Prussia (the most powerful German state).

What Did Zollverein Achieve?

1. Abolished Tariff Barriers

 Customs duties between German states were removed

 Goods could now move freely within the German economic zone

2. Reduced Currencies

 The number of currencies was reduced from over thirty to only two

 This made trade much easier

3. Created Economic Unity

 A unified economic system was established

 Common weights and measures were adopted

Importance of Zollverein for Nationalism

Why was Zollverein important for German nationalism?

The Zollverein showed German businessmen, merchants, and the middle class the benefits of economic unity. They realized that:

​ Trade was easier in a unified economic zone

 Business could grow faster without internal barriers

 A unified Germany would be economically stronger

This economic cooperation created support for political unification later. The Zollverein proved that unity brought practical benefits, not just emotional satisfaction.

---

A New Conservatism After 1815

The Fall of Napoleon

Napoleon Bonaparte ruled France and conquered large parts of Europe. However, in 1815, Napoleon was defeated. After his defeat, European rulers wanted to restore the old order and stop nationalist and liberal ideas from spreading.

The Congress of Vienna (1815)

After Napoleon's defeat, European governments were driven by a spirit of conservatism. They held a major conference called the Congress of Vienna in 1815.

​Who Organized It?
The Congress was hosted by the Austrian Chancellor, Duke Metternich. Metternich was a strong conservative who opposed all liberal and nationalist movements.

​What is Conservatism?

Conservatism is a political philosophy that supports traditional institutions and opposes rapid change.

​What Did Conservatives Believe In?

Conservatives in the early 19th century believed in:

 Monarchy - Rule by kings should continue

 The Church - The Church's power should be preserved

 Social hierarchies - Society should have different levels (rich and poor, nobles and common people)

 Property rights - Private property should be protected

 The family - Traditional family structures should be maintained

Conservatives believed these institutions had developed over time and should not be suddenly changed.

​The Treaty of Vienna 1815

At the Congress of Vienna, conservative rulers made several important decisions:

​

1. Restoration of Bourbon Dynasty in France

 The old royal family (Bourbons) was brought back to power in France

 The revolutionary government was removed

2. France Lost Conquered Territories

 All territories that Napoleon had conquered were taken away from France

3. Creation of Buffer States

 A series of states were set up on France's boundaries to prevent future French expansion.

4. Kingdom of the Netherlands

 The Kingdom of the Netherlands was set up in the north, which included Belgium

 This was to block France from expanding northward

5. Prussia Given New Territories

 Prussia was given important new territories on its western frontiers

 This made Prussia stronger and able to resist France

6. Austria Given Control of Northern Italy

 Austria (the Habsburg Empire) was given control of northern Italian territories

7. Russia Given Part of Poland

 Russia was given part of Poland

8. Prussia Given Part of Saxony

 Prussia was also given a portion of Saxony

Conservative Regimes and Suppression

After 1815, conservative regimes were set up in most of Europe. These regimes were autocratic (having absolute power).

How Did Conservative Regimes Control People?

1. Censorship

 Most conservative regimes imposed censorship laws to control what was said in newspapers, books, and plays

 Journalists and writers were arrested if they criticized the government

2. No Freedom of Speech

 People could not openly question the government

 Public meetings and discussions were banned

3. No Political Freedom

 No elections were held

 Parliaments either did not exist or had no real power

4. Military Force

 Armies were used to crush any protests or rebellions

Modernization by Conservative Regimes

However, these conservative rulers were not completely against all changes. They understood that modernization was necessary to make their states strong.

​What did they modernize?

 They introduced modern armies with better training and weapons

 They created efficient bureaucracies (government administration)

 They strengthened the economy

 They abolished feudalism and serfdom in some places to increase agricultural production

But they did NOT give political freedom to people. They wanted economic strength without democracy.

---

The Revolutionaries

 

Opposition Goes Underground

After 1815, the conservative regimes crushed all open opposition. People who believed in liberal and nationalist ideas could not work openly.

​What happened to liberals and nationalists?

 Many were forced to go underground (work in secret)

 They could not openly speak or write against the government

 Secret meetings were held in hidden locations

Formation of Secret Societies

In many European states, secret societies sprang up. These were organizations that worked secretly to oppose conservative governments.

​

What did secret societies do?

 They trained revolutionaries to fight against conservative regimes

 They spread ideas of liberty, freedom, and nationalism among people

 They planned uprisings and revolts

 They helped each other across borders

Example: The Carbonari was a famous secret society in Italy.

​

What Did Being a Revolutionary Mean?

At this time in history, being a revolutionary at this time meant:

​1. Opposition to Monarchical Forms

 Fighting against the monarchies that were established after the Vienna Congress

 Wanting to replace kings with elected governments

2. Fight for Liberty and Freedom

 Demanding political freedom and civil rights

 Opposing censorship and autocracy

3. Creation of Nation-States

 Working to unify divided regions like Germany and Italy

 Creating nation-states based on parliamentary principles

Giuseppe Mazzini - The Most Dangerous Revolutionary

Giuseppe Mazzini was one of the most important revolutionaries in 19th-century Europe.

​Early Life:

 Mazzini was born in Genoa in 1807

 Genoa was part of Italian territories

 He was an educated young man who believed in republican ideals

Joining the Revolutionary Movement:

 As a young man of 24, Mazzini became a member of the secret society called Carbonari

 He participated in revolutionary activities

Exile:

 In 1831, Mazzini was sent into exile (forced to leave Italy) for plotting against conservative regimes

 He then lived in Marseilles (France) and later Berne (Switzerland)

Mazzini's Organizations

1. Young Italy (Founded 1831)

 While in exile in Marseilles (France), Mazzini founded an organization called Young Italy in 1831

 Young Italy was dedicated to the unification of Italian states

2. Young Europe (Founded in Berne)

 Subsequently, Mazzini founded Young Europe in Berne (Switzerland)

 Young Europe brought together like-minded young men from:

 Poland

 France

 Italy

 German states

Purpose of These Organizations:

 To train revolutionaries

 To spread the ideas of nationalism and republicanism

 To coordinate revolutionary activities across Europe

Mazzini's Beliefs and Vision

What did Mazzini believe?

1. Italy Should Be Unified

 Mazzini believed that Italy should be a unified nation, not a patchwork of small states and kingdoms

 He dreamed of a single Italian nation

2. Italy Should Be a Republic

 Mazzini did NOT want Italy to be ruled by a king

 He wanted Italy to be a republic where the people would govern themselves

3. Nations Are Natural Units

 Mazzini believed that God intended nations to be the natural units of mankind

 According to him, Italy was a natural nation that should be united

4. Democratic Republicanism

 Mazzini believed in democratic ideals

 He wanted governments based on the will of the people

Metternich's Fear of Mazzini

Metternich, the Austrian Chancellor and leader of European conservatism, was very afraid of Mazzini's influence.

​Quote from NCERT:
Metternich described Mazzini as "the most dangerous enemy of our social order".

This quote shows how much conservative rulers feared Mazzini's revolutionary ideas. They knew that if Mazzini's ideas spread, the old order would collapse.

---

Social Classes and Their Role in Nationalism

Social Class	Size	Economic Base	Political Views	Role in Nationalism
Aristocracy	Very small (numerically)	Owned vast estates; income from agriculture	Conservative; wanted to maintain traditional power	Generally opposed nationalism
Peasantry	Majority of population	Worked on land; mostly serfs or bonded laborers	Limited political awareness	Not the main force behind nationalism initially
Middle Class	Growing in size due to industrialization	Industrialists, businessmen, professionals	Liberal; wanted constitutions, freedom, parliaments	Main supporters of nationalism

Liberal vs Conservative Ideas

Aspect	Liberal Ideas	Conservative Ideas
Government	Constitutional government with elected parliament	Monarchy with absolute or near-absolute power
Individual Rights	Freedom of speech, press, association	Censorship and control of expression
Equality	Equality before law	Social hierarchies should be maintained
Economy	Free markets, removal of trade barriers	State control when needed
Change	Support modernization and reform	Preserve traditional institutions
Church	End clerical privileges	Preserve Church's power

 

---

Summary Points -

a. In mid-18th century Europe, there were no nation-states; Germany had 39 states, Italy had 7 states

b. The Habsburg Empire ruled over many ethnic groups (Germans, Italians, Hungarians, Poles, Czechs, etc.) united only by the emperor

c. The aristocracy was a small but dominant class owning vast estates cultivated by serfs

d. Peasantry formed the majority and had difficult lives as bonded laborers

e. Industrialization led to the emergence of the middle class (industrialists, businessmen, professionals)

f. The educated middle class became the main supporters of nationalist ideas

g. Liberalism meant freedom for individuals, equality before law, constitutional government, and free markets

h. However, 19th-century liberals wanted voting rights only for property-owning men, not women or the poor

i. The Zollverein (1834) abolished trade barriers in German states, reduced currencies from 30+ to 2, creating economic unity

j. After Napoleon's defeat (1815), the Congress of Vienna restored conservative monarchies

k. Metternich hosted the Congress of Vienna and led European conservatism

l. Conservatives believed in monarchy, Church power, social hierarchies, and traditional institutions

m. Conservative regimes imposed censorship, banned criticism, and used military force to suppress opposition

n. After 1815, liberals and nationalists formed secret societies and went underground

o. Being revolutionary meant opposing monarchies established after Vienna, fighting for liberty, and creating nation-states

p. Giuseppe Mazzini founded Young Italy (1831) and Young Europe, believing Italy should be a unified republic

q. Metternich called Mazzini "the most dangerous enemy of our social order"

---

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q1: How was Europe organized before nation-states?
Europe was divided into kingdoms, duchies, and multi-national empires. Germany had 39 states, Italy had 7 states. Large empires like the Habsburg Empire ruled over many different ethnic groups.

​Q2: What was the social structure of Europe in the 18th century?
Europe had three main classes: the aristocracy (small, dominant, owned land), the peasantry (majority, serfs), and the emerging middle class (industrialists, professionals).

​Q3: What did liberal nationalism stand for?
Liberal nationalism meant freedom for individuals, equality before law, government by consent, constitutional government, parliamentary representation, free markets, and removal of trade restrictions.

​Q4: Did 19th-century liberals believe in universal voting rights?
No. They wanted voting rights only for property-owning men. Women and poor people without property were excluded from voting.

​Q5: What was the Zollverein and why was it important?
The Zollverein was a customs union formed in Germany in 1834. It abolished trade barriers, reduced currencies from over 30 to 2, and created economic unity. This showed Germans the benefits of unification.

​Q6: What happened at the Congress of Vienna in 1815?
The Congress of Vienna was hosted by Metternich after Napoleon's defeat. It restored conservative monarchies, brought back the Bourbon dynasty in France, and tried to undo changes made during the Napoleonic period.

​Q7: What did conservatives believe in?
Conservatives believed in preserving monarchy, Church power, social hierarchies, property rights, and traditional institutions. They imposed censorship and suppressed criticism.

​Q8: Why did revolutionaries form secret societies after 1815?
Conservative regimes crushed open opposition, so liberals and nationalists went underground. They formed secret societies to train revolutionaries and spread ideas of liberty and nationalism.

​Q9: Who was Giuseppe Mazzini?
Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian revolutionary born in 1807. He founded Young Italy (1831) and Young Europe. He believed Italy should be a unified republic and opposed monarchy. Metternich called him "the most dangerous enemy of our social order".

​Q10: What did being a revolutionary mean in the early 19th century?
Being a revolutionary meant opposing the monarchies established after the Vienna Congress, fighting for liberty and freedom, and working to create nation-states based on parliamentary principles.

​

---

​You now have complete NCERT-based notes on "The Making of Nationalism in Europe" in very simple English! This section covers the social structure, liberal nationalism, economic unity, conservatism, and revolutionaries - all essential topics for your Class 10 board exams.

For more NCERT-based Class 10 History notes, exam tips, and study materials, bookmark this page and share with your friends. If you have doubts about any concept, comment below. All the best for your board exams!