The Making of Germany and Italy
Introduction
Section 4 "The Making of Germany and Italy" is the most important part of NCERT Class 10 History Chapter 1 on nationalism in Europe. This section explains how two of Europe's most powerful nations - Germany and Italy - were formed through the unification of smaller states. Both Germany and Italy did not exist as unified nations before the 19th century. Germany was divided into 39 separate states, while Italy was split into seven different regions ruled by various kings and foreign powers.
The process of German unification was led by Prussia under the leadership of Otto von Bismarck through a series of wars and diplomatic strategies. Italian unification, also called the Risorgimento (meaning "resurgence"), involved three key figures: Giuseppe Mazzini (the visionary), Count Camillo de Cavour (the diplomatic strategist), and Giuseppe Garibaldi (the military hero). Understanding the unification of Germany and Italy is crucial for Class 10 CBSE board exams as this topic frequently appears in important questions and map work.
In this blog post, we will cover the complete process of nation-building in Germany and Italy in very simple English.
Germany
Before Unification
Political Fragmentation of German States
In the mid-19th century, Germany was not a unified nation but a collection of independent states. After the Vienna Congress of 1815, German-speaking regions were organized into 39 states that formed the German Confederation. These states included powerful kingdoms like Prussia and Bavaria, smaller duchies, principalities, and free cities.
Problems Due to Fragmentation:
· Each state had its own ruler, laws, and currency
· Trade barriers existed between states, making business difficult
· Military weakness as states fought separately
· No common identity or unified government
· Different customs duties slowed economic growth
The Zollverein and Economic Unity
As discussed in Section 2, the Zollverein (customs union) was formed in 1834 under Prussian leadership. This abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from over thirty to just two. The Zollverein created economic unity and showed Germans the practical benefits of unification, preparing the ground for political unification later.
The Failed Revolution of 1848
The Frankfurt Parliament of 1848 attempted to unify Germany through democratic means. The 831 elected representatives drafted a constitution and offered the crown to King Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia. However, he rejected it, and the assembly was disbanded by military force. This failure proved that German unification would not happen through liberal revolutions but through military power and diplomatic strategy.
The Making of Germany - Unification Under Prussia
Prussia's Dominance
After the failure of 1848, it became clear that Prussia would lead German unification. Prussia was the most powerful German state with:
· A strong and disciplined military
· Advanced industrialization
· Efficient bureaucracy
· Strong monarchy under the Hohenzollern dynasty
Key Phrase for Exams: Nationalist feelings in Germany were widespread but the nation-building process was led by Prussian state power, not by popular movements.
Otto von Bismarck - The Architect of German Unity
Otto von Bismarck became the Chief Minister of Prussia in 1862 under King Wilhelm I. Bismarck was a conservative politician who believed in "blood and iron" - meaning that national unity would be achieved through military force, not parliamentary debates.
Bismarck's Philosophy:
He famously declared that the great questions of the day would not be settled
by speeches and majority decisions (as attempted in 1848) but by "iron and blood"
- referring to military strength and warfare.
Three Wars of German Unification
Bismarck achieved German unification through three carefully planned wars:
1. War Against Denmark (1864)
· Prussia and Austria together fought against Denmark
· They gained control of the provinces of Schleswig and Holstein
· This war tested Prussian military strength
· Victory boosted Prussian prestige among German states
2. Austro-Prussian War (1866)
· Also called the Seven Weeks' War
· Prussia fought against Austria to establish which power would dominate Germany
· Prussia won decisively due to superior military organization
· Austria was excluded from German affairs
· Prussia formed the North German Confederation, bringing many northern states under its leadership
3. Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871)
· Bismarck provoked France into declaring war through diplomatic manipulation
· He used the famous "Ems Telegram" to insult France and force them to attack
· German states united against the common enemy (France)
· Prussia won a crushing victory
· Southern German states joined the North German Confederation
Proclamation of the German Empire (January 18, 1871)
On January 18, 1871, in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles in France, King Wilhelm I of Prussia was proclaimed German Emperor (Kaiser). This symbolic ceremony in the heart of defeated France demonstrated German military superiority and marked the birth of the unified German Empire.
Important Points for Class 10 Students:
· The ceremony was held in France to humiliate the defeated French
· Wilhelm I became the Kaiser (Emperor) of unified Germany
· Bismarck became the Imperial Chancellor
· Germany became the most powerful nation in continental Europe
Nature of German Unification
German unification was achieved through:
· Prussian military power ("blood and iron")
· Diplomatic strategy by Bismarck
· Three wars that eliminated opposition
· Authoritarian methods, not democratic movements
· Conservative leadership, not liberal revolutionaries
This was different from nationalist movements in other countries where popular uprisings played a major role.
The Making of Nationalism in Europe - Complete Class 10 CBSE Notes.
Italy Before Unification
Political Division of Italy
In the early 19th century, Italy was divided into seven separate states:
1. Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont (ruled by Italian royal house of Savoy)
2. Lombardy and Venetia (under Austrian control)
3. Papal States (ruled by the Pope)
4. Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (southern Italy, ruled by Spanish Bourbon dynasty)
5. Duchies of Tuscany, Parma, and Modena (under Austrian influence)
Problems Due to Division:
· Foreign powers (Austria, Spain) controlled Italian territories
· No common government or identity
· Different rulers with conflicting interests
· Economic backwardness
· Austrian domination in the north
Italian Nationalism Grows
After Napoleon's defeat, Italian territories were given back to various rulers at the Congress of Vienna (1815). However, nationalist feelings had been awakened during the Napoleonic period. Secret societies like the Carbonari worked underground to promote Italian unity and independence.
The Making of Italy - The Risorgimento Movement
Three Leaders of Italian Unification
Italian unification involved three key personalities, each playing a different role:
1. Giuseppe Mazzini - The Soul (Visionary)
· Born in Genoa in 1807
· Founded Young Italy (1831) and Young Europe
· Believed Italy should be a unified republic
· Inspired young Italians with his revolutionary ideas
· Represented the idealistic, revolutionary approach
2. Count Camillo de Cavour - The Brain (Diplomat)
· Chief Minister of Sardinia-Piedmont
· Believed in diplomatic strategy and alliances
· Modernized Sardinia to make it strong
· Led the practical political unification
· Represented the realistic, diplomatic approach
3. Giuseppe Garibaldi - The Sword (Military Hero)
· Born in Nice in 1807
· Led military campaigns to conquer territories
· Famous for his "Red Shirts" volunteer army
· Conquered the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
· Represented the military, action-oriented approach
Role of Sardinia-Piedmont
The Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont became the center of Italian unification because:
· It was ruled by an Italian royal house (House of Savoy)
· It had not been conquered by foreign powers
· King Victor Emmanuel II supported unification
· Cavour modernized its economy and military
Cavour's Diplomatic Strategy
Count Camillo de Cavour became Chief Minister of Sardinia in 1852. His strategy included:
1. Modernization of Sardinia:
· Built railways and infrastructure
· Strengthened the military
· Improved economy and administration
· Made Sardinia a model Italian state
2. Alliance with France:
· Cavour made a secret pact with French Emperor Napoleon III
· France would help Sardinia fight Austria in exchange for territories
· This was crucial as Austria controlled northern Italy
3. War Against Austria (1859):
· Sardinia-Piedmont and France fought against Austria
· They won battles at Magenta and Solferino
· Austria was defeated and gave up Lombardy
· However, France made a separate peace, preventing complete victory
4. Central Italian States Join:
· Through plebiscites (popular votes), the duchies of Tuscany, Parma, and Modena voted to join Sardinia-Piedmont in 1860
· These states expelled their rulers and joined willingly
Garibaldi's Expedition and Southern Italy
In 1860, Giuseppe Garibaldi led one of the most romantic military campaigns in history:
The Expedition of the Thousand (1860):
· Garibaldi led 1,000 volunteer soldiers called "Red Shirts"
· They sailed from Genoa to Sicily
· With local support, they conquered Sicily
· They crossed to mainland southern Italy
· They defeated the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
Garibaldi's Sacrifice:
· After conquering southern Italy, Garibaldi met King Victor Emmanuel II
· He handed over all conquered territories to the king
· He refused titles and rewards
· He retired to his island home, Caprera
· This showed his patriotism and selflessness
Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy (1861)
In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed King of Italy. Most of the Italian peninsula was now unified under his rule. However, two important regions were still outside:
· Venetia (still under Austrian control)
· Papal States including Rome (under the Pope's control)
Complete Unification
Venetia (1866):
· Italy allied with Prussia in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866
· When Austria was defeated by Prussia, it gave Venetia to Italy
Rome and Papal States (1870):
· In 1870, France was defeated in the Franco-Prussian War
· French troops protecting the Pope were withdrawn
· Italian forces entered Rome
· Rome became the capital of unified Italy
Final Unification: By 1871, Italy was completely unified with Rome as its capital.
Comparison: German vs Italian Unification
Aspect
|
German Unification |
Italian Unification |
|
|
Time Period |
1864-1871 |
1859-1871 |
|
Leading State |
Prussia |
Sardinia-Piedmont |
|
Key Leader |
Otto von Bismarck |
Count Cavour (diplomatic), Garibaldi (military), Mazzini (ideological) |
|
Method |
"Blood and iron" - military force and wars |
Combination of diplomacy, wars, and popular movements |
|
Key Wars |
Danish War (1864), Austro-Prussian War (1866), Franco-Prussian War (1870-71) |
War against Austria (1859), Garibaldi's expedition (1860), acquisition of Venetia (1866) and Rome (1870) |
|
Role of Popular Movement |
Limited; led by Prussian state power |
Significant; Garibaldi's volunteers, plebiscites, secret societies |
|
Foreign Help |
None; Prussia defeated opponents alone |
France helped against Austria in 1859 |
|
Final Ruler |
Kaiser Wilhelm I (Prussian king became German Emperor) |
King Victor Emmanuel II (Sardinian king became Italian King) |
|
Nature of Unity |
Authoritarian, conservative, top-down |
Mix of revolutionary idealism and practical diplomacy |
|
Proclamation |
Hall of Mirrors, Versailles, France (Jan 18, 1871) |
Proclaimed King of Italy in 1861; complete by 1871 |
Important Personalities - Class 10 Map Work
|
Name |
Country |
Role |
Remember For Exams |
|
Otto von Bismarck |
Germany |
Chief Minister of Prussia; architect of German unity through "blood and iron" |
Led three wars; proclaimed German Empire 1871 |
|
Kaiser Wilhelm I |
Germany |
King of Prussia who became first German Emperor |
Crowned at Versailles on Jan 18, 1871 |
|
Giuseppe Mazzini |
Italy |
Revolutionary; founded Young Italy |
"Soul" of Italian unification; wanted republic |
|
Count Cavour |
Italy |
Chief Minister of Sardinia; diplomatic strategist |
"Brain" of unification; allied with France |
|
Giuseppe Garibaldi |
Italy |
Military leader; led Red Shirts expedition |
"Sword" of unification; conquered southern Italy |
|
King Victor Emmanuel II |
Italy |
King of Sardinia who became King of Italy |
First king of unified Italy (1861) |
Summary Points
· Germany consisted of 39 separate states before unification
· The Zollverein (1834) created economic unity in German states
· Frankfurt Parliament (1848) failed to unify Germany democratically
· Prussia led German unification under Chief Minister Otto von Bismarck
· Bismarck believed in "blood and iron" - military force over parliamentary methods
· German unification achieved through three wars: Danish War (1864), Austro-Prussian War (1866), Franco-Prussian War (1870-71)
· German Empire proclaimed on January 18, 1871, at Versailles, France
· Wilhelm I became Kaiser (Emperor) of Germany
· Italy was divided into seven states with foreign domination
· Three leaders led Italian unification: Mazzini (visionary), Cavour (diplomat), Garibaldi (military)
· Sardinia-Piedmont under King Victor Emmanuel II and Cavour led unification
· Cavour allied with France and defeated Austria in 1859, acquiring Lombardy
· Garibaldi led 1,000 Red Shirts volunteers and conquered southern Italy in 1860
· Victor Emmanuel II proclaimed King of Italy in 1861
· Venetia joined Italy in 1866 after Austria's defeat
· Rome was captured in 1870 and became the capital
· Italian unification was complete by 1871
· German unification was authoritarian and top-down; Italian unification involved popular movements
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)
Q1: How was Germany unified?
Germany was unified through Prussian military power under Otto von Bismarck's
leadership. Three wars (Danish War 1864, Austro-Prussian War 1866,
Franco-Prussian War 1870-71) eliminated opposition. The German Empire was
proclaimed on January 18, 1871, at Versailles.
Q2: Who was Otto von Bismarck?
Otto von Bismarck was the Chief Minister of Prussia who became the architect of
German unification. He believed in "blood and iron" - using military
force rather than parliamentary debates to achieve national unity.
Q3: What were the three wars of German unification?
The three wars were: (1) Danish War 1864 to gain Schleswig-Holstein, (2)
Austro-Prussian War 1866 to exclude Austria from German affairs, (3)
Franco-Prussian War 1870-71 to unite all German states against France.
Q4: Why was the German Empire proclaimed at
Versailles?
The German Empire was proclaimed at the Palace of Versailles in France on
January 18, 1871, to humiliate defeated France and demonstrate German military
superiority.
Q5: Who were the three leaders of Italian
unification?
The three leaders were Giuseppe Mazzini (the visionary who founded Young
Italy), Count Cavour (the diplomatic strategist), and Giuseppe Garibaldi (the
military hero who led the Red Shirts).
Q6: What was Garibaldi's Expedition of the
Thousand?
In 1860, Giuseppe Garibaldi led 1,000 volunteer soldiers called Red Shirts from
Genoa to Sicily. They conquered Sicily and southern Italy (Kingdom of the Two
Sicilies) and handed these territories to King Victor Emmanuel II.
Q7: How did Sardinia-Piedmont lead Italian
unification?
Sardinia-Piedmont was the only major Italian state ruled by an Italian royal
house (House of Savoy). Under King Victor Emmanuel II and Chief Minister
Cavour, it modernized, allied with France, defeated Austria, and absorbed other
Italian states.
Q8: When was Italy completely unified?
Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed King of Italy in 1861, but complete
unification came in 1871 when Venetia (1866) and Rome (1870) were acquired.
Rome became the capital in 1870.
Q9: What was the difference between German and
Italian unification?
German unification was authoritarian, led by Prussian state power through
military force ("blood and iron"). Italian unification involved a mix
of diplomatic strategy, popular movements (Garibaldi's volunteers), and some
foreign help (France).
Q10: What is Risorgimento?
Risorgimento means "resurgence" in Italian. It refers to the
19th-century movement for Italian unification and independence from foreign
control.
You now have complete NCERT-based notes on Section : "The Making of Germany and Italy" in very simple English!
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